Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Community College Pathway: An Analysis of the Costs Associated with Enrolling Initially at a Community College Before Transferring to a 4-Year Institution

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Higher Education Policy Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The study examines the direct and indirect costs of enrolling initially at a community college before transferring to a 4-year institution for baccalaureate-degree-seeking students in the USA. Using nationally generalizable data, this study employs propensity score weighting to identify the influence of initial community college enrollment on baccalaureate degree attainment, cumulative student loan debt, and time-to-degree. Our findings show that students who enrolled initially at a community college before transferring to a 4-year institution were less likely to obtain their baccalaureate degree, accrued $2221 less in cumulative student loan debt, and took about three months longer to graduate than their peers who began at 4-year colleges and universities. We provide empirical evidence of the potential trade-off associated with direct savings in cumulative loan debt and indirect costs of community college enrollment related to decreases in the likelihood of baccalaureate degree attainment and increases in time-to-degree. Given these findings, we suggest that 4-year institutions should alter their institutional policies to better accommodate vertical transfer students and ensure that these historically underrepresented students are able to succeed academically.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Figure 1
Figure 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aina, C. and Casalone, G. (2011) ‘Does time-to-degree matter? The effect of delayed graduation on employment and wages (Working Papers 38)’, AlmaLaurea Inter-University Consortium.

  • Alfonso, M. (2006) ‘The impact of community college attendance on baccalaureate attainment’, Research in Higher Education 47(8): 873–903.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • American Association for Community Colleges (AACC) (2016) ‘2016 fact sheet’. Retrieved from http://www.aacc.nche.edu/AboutCC/Documents/AACCFactSheetsR2.pdf.

  • Austin, P.C. (2011) ‘An introduction to propensity score methods for reducing the effects of confounding in observational studies’, Multivariate Behavioral Research 46(3): 399–424.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ayers, D.F. (2002) ‘Mission priorities of community colleges in the southern United States’, Community College Review 30(3): 11–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, T., Jeong, D.W. and Cho, S. (2010) ‘Referral, enrollment, and completion in developmental education sequences in community colleges’, Economics of Education Review 29(2): 255–270.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, T. and Morest, V.S. (2006) Defending the Community College Equity Agenda, Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barreno, Y. and Traut, C.A. (2012) ‘Student decisions to attend public two-year community colleges’, Community College Journal of Research and Practice 36(11): 863–871.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baum, S., Elliott, D.C. and Ma, J. (2014) Trends in student aid 2014, The College Board. Retrieved from https://secure-media.collegeboard.org/digitalServices/misc/trends/2014-trends-student-aid-report-final.pdf.

  • Baum, S. and Ma, J. (2014) Trends in College Pricing 2014, The College Board. Retrieved from https://secure-media.collegeboard.org/digitalServices/misc/trends/2014-trends-college-pricing-report-final.pdf.

  • Belfield, C.R. and Bailey, T. (2011) ‘The benefits of attending community college: A review of the evidence’, Community College Review 39(1): 46–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bound, J., Lovenheim, M.F. and Turner, S. (2012) ‘Increasing time to baccalaureate degree in the United States’, Education Finance and Policy 7(4): 375–424.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caliendo, M. and Kopeinig, S. (2008) ‘Some practical guidance for the implementation of Propensity Score Matching’, Journal of Economic Surveys 22(1): 31–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carnevale, A.P., Rose, S.J. and Cheah, B. (2011) The College Payoff: Education, Occupation, Lifetime Earnings, Washington, D.C.: The Georgetown University Center on Education and the Workforce.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, A.M., Brawer, F.B. and Kisker, C.B. (2014) The American Community College (6th ed), San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass

    Google Scholar 

  • Dietrich, C.C. and Lichtenberger, E.J. (2015) ‘Using propensity score matching to test the community college penalty assumption’, The Review of Higher Education 38(2): 193–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dougherty, K.J. (1992) ‘Community colleges and baccalaureate attainment’, The Journal of Higher Education 63(2): 188–214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dougherty, K.J. (1994) The Contradictory College, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Doyle, W.R. (2009) ‘The effect of community college enrollment on bachelor’s degree completion’, Economics of Education Review 28(2): 199–206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DuGoff, E.H., Schuler, M. and Stuart, E.A. (2014) ‘Generalizing observational study results: Applying propensity score methods to complex surveys’, Health Services Research 49: 284–303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ehrenberg, R.G. and Smith, C.L. (2004) ‘Analyzing the success of student transitions from 2- to 4-year institutions within a state’, Economics of Education Review 23(1): 11–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fonte, R. (2011) ‘The community college alternative’, Academic Questions 24(4): 419–428.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldhaber, D. and Peri, G.K. (2007) ‘Community colleges’, in S. Dickert-Conlin and R. Rubenstein (eds.) Economic Inequality and Higher Education: Access, Persistence, and Success, New York, NY: The Russell Sage Foundation, pp. 101–127.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldrick-Rab, S. (2010) ‘Challenges and opportunities for improving community college student success’, Review of Educational Research 80(3): 437–469.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gonzalez, A. and Hilmer, M.J. (2006) ‘The role of 2-year colleges in the improving situation of Hispanic postsecondary education’, Economics of Education Review 25(3): 249–257.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gonzalez Canche, M.S. (2014) ‘Is the community college a less expensive path toward a bachelor’s degree? Public 2- and 4-year colleges’ impact on loan debt’, The Journal of Higher Education 85(5): 723–759.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grimes, S.K. and David, K.C. (1999) ‘Underprepared community college students: Implications of attitudinal and experiential differences’, Community College Review 27(2): 73–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grites, T.J. (2004) ‘Redefining the role: Reflections and directions’ in T. J. Kerr, M. C. King and T. J. Grites (eds.) Advising Transfer Students: Issues and Strategies, Seattle, WA: NACADA, National Academic Advising Association Monograph Series, No. 12, pp. 123–132.

  • Guo, S. and Fraser, M. (2015) Propensity Score Analysis (2nd ed), Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

    Google Scholar 

  • Handel, S.J. (2013) ‘Community college students earning the baccalaureate degree: The good news could be better’, College and University 89(2): 22–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hilmer, M.J. (1997) ‘Does community college attendance provide a strategic path to quality education?’, Economics of Education Review 16(1): 59–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ishitani, T.T. and McKitrick, S.A. (2010) ‘After transfer: The engagement of community college students at a four-year collegiate institution’, Community College Journal of Research and Practice 34(7): 576–594.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jaeger, D. and Page, M. (1996) ‘Degrees matter: New evidence on sheepskin effects in the returns to education’, The Review of Economics and Statistics 78(4): 733–740.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins, D. and Fink, J. (2016) Tracking transfer: New measures of institutional and state effectiveness in helping community college students attain bachelor’s degrees, Community College Research Center. Retrieved from http://ccrc.tc.columbia.edu/media/k2/attachments/tracking-transfer-institutional-state-effectiveness.pdf

  • Kahlenberg, R.D. (2004) America’s Untapped Resource: Low-Income Students in Higher Education, New York, NY: Century Foundation Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kane, T.J. and Rouse, C.E. (1999) ‘The community college: Educating students at the margin between college and work’, The Journal of Economic Perspectives 13(1): 63–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kienzl, G.S., Wesaw, A.J. and Kumar, A. (2012) Understanding the Transfer Process: A Report by the Institute for Higher Education Policy for the Initiative on Transfer Policy and Practice. Washington, D.C.: Institute for Higher Education Policy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kurlaende, M., Jackson, J., Howell, J.S. and Grodsky, E. (2014) ‘College course scarcity and time to degree’, Economics of Education Review 41(1): 24–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levin, J.S. (2000) ‘The revised institution: The community college mission at the end of the Twentieth Century’, Community College Review 28(2): 1–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Long, B.T. and Kurlaender, M. (2009) ‘Do community colleges provide a viable pathway to a baccalaureate degree?’, Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 31(1): 30–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mankiw, N.G. (1998) Principles of Microeconomics, Fort Worth, TX: The Dryden Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKinney, L. and Burridge, A.B. (2015) ‘Heling or hindering? The effects of loans on community college student persistence’, Research in Higher Education 56(4): 299–324.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKinney, L., Mukherjee, M., Wade, J., Shefman, P. and Breed, R. (2015) ‘Community college students’ assessments of the costs and benefits of borrowing to finance higher education’, Community College Review 43(3): 329–354.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Melguizo, T. (2009) ‘Are community colleges an alternative path for Hispanic students to attain a bachelor’s degree?’, Teachers College Record 111(1): 90–123.

    Google Scholar 

  • Melguizo, T. and Dowd, A.C. (2009) ‘Baccalaureate success of transfers and rising 4-year college juniors’, Teachers College Record 111(1): 55–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Melguizo, T., Kienzl, G.S. and Alfonso, M. (2011) ‘Comparing the educational attainment of community college transfer students and four-year college rising juniors using propensity score matching methods’, The Journal of Higher Education 82(3): 265–291.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Monaghan, D.B. and Attewell, P. (2015) ‘The community college route to the bachelor’s degree’, Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 37(1): 70–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Monk-Turner, E. (1995) ‘Factors shaping the probability of community vs. four-year college entrance and acquisition of the B.A. degree’, The Social Science Journal 32(3): 255–264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mooring, R.D. and Mooring, S.R. (2016) ‘Predictors of timely baccalaureate attainment for underrepresented minority community college transfer students’, Community College Journal of Research and Practice 40(8): 681–694.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prager, C. (2001) ‘Accrediting for curricular coherence’, in H. Rafael (ed.) General Education in An Age of Student Mobility, Washington, DC: Association of American Colleges and Universities, pp. 26–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Provasnik, S. and Planty, M. (2008) Community colleges: Special supplement to the condition of education 2008 (NCES 2008-033), National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, C.L. (2012) ‘Where to attend? Estimating the effects of beginning college at a two-year institution’, Economics of Education Review 31(4): 345–362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, C.L. and DesJardins, S.L. (2009) ‘The use of matching methods in higher education research: Answering whether attendance at a 2-year institution results in differences in educational attainment’, in J.C. Smith (ed.) Higher Education: Handbook of Theory and Research, New York: Springer, pp. 47–97.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, J. and McNeese, M.N. (2010) ‘Student involvement/engagement in higher education based on student origin’, Research in Higher Education Journal 7(1): 1–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenbaum, P.R. (2002) Observational Studies, New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenbaum, P.R. and Rubin, D.B. (1983) ‘The central role of the propensity score in observational studies for causal effects’, Biometrika 70(1): 41–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rouse, C.E. (1995) ‘Democratization or diversion? The effect of community colleges on educational attainment’, Journal of Business and Economic Statistics 13(2): 217–224.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rubin, D.B. (1997) ‘Estimating causal effects from large data sets using propensity scores’, Annals of Internal Medicine 127(8): 757–763.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schudde, L.T. (2011) ‘The causal effect of campus residency on college student retention’, The Review of Higher Education 34(4): 581–610.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shadish, W.R., Cook, T.D. and Campbell, D.T. (2002) Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Generalized Causal Inference, Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shannon, H.D. and Smith, R.C. (2006) ‘A case for the community college’s open access mission’, New Directions for Community Colleges 136: 15–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Somers, P., Haines, K., Keene, B., Bauer, J., Pfeiffer, M., McCluskey, J., Settle, J. and Sparks, B. (2006) ‘Towards a theory of choice for community college students’, Community College Journal of Research and Practice 30(1): 53–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stokes, T. and Somers, P. (2009) ‘Who enrolls in two-year colleges? A national study of price response’, Journal of Student Financial Aid 39(1): 4–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Townsend, B.K. and Wilson, K.B. (2006) ‘“A hand hold for a little bit”: Factors facilitating the success of community college transfer students to a large research university’, Journal of College Student Development 47: 439–456.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Department of Education. (2016) Beginning Postsecondary Students, Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/bps/about.asp.

  • Wood, J.L. and Harrison, J.D. (2014) ‘College choice for black males in the community college: Factors influencing institutional selection’, The Negro Educational Review 65(1–4): 87–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xu, D., Jaggars, S.S. and Fletcher, J. (2016) ‘How and why does two-year college entry influence baccalaureate aspirants’ academic and labor market outcomes? (A CAPSEE Working Paper)’. Retrieved from Community College Research Center website: http://ccrc.tc.columbia.edu/publications/capsee-how-and-why-two-year-college-entry-influence-outcomes.html.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Adult and Higher Education, College of Education, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL, USA

    Xiaodan Hu

  2. Higher Education Administration & Policy, College of Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA

    Justin C. Ortagus & Dennis A. Kramer II

Authors
  1. Xiaodan Hu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Justin C. Ortagus
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Dennis A. Kramer II
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Xiaodan Hu.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Hu, X., Ortagus, J.C. & Kramer, D.A. The Community College Pathway: An Analysis of the Costs Associated with Enrolling Initially at a Community College Before Transferring to a 4-Year Institution. High Educ Policy 31, 359–380 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41307-017-0063-7

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41307-017-0063-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation