OtherAARC Clinical Practice Guideline

AARC Clinical Practice Guideline: Blood Gas Analysis and Hemoximetry: 2013

Michael D Davis, Brian K Walsh, Steve E Sittig and Ruben D Restrepo
Respiratory Care October 2013, 58 (10) 1694-1703; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4187/respcare.02786

References

  1. 1.↵
    1. Blonshine S,
    2. Fallon KD,
    3. Lehman CM,
    4. Sittig S
    ; Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (formerly NCCLS). Procedures for the collection of arterial blood specimens; approved standard, 4th edition. Wayne, PA: CLSI; 2004. CLSI no. H11-A4.
  2. 2.
    1. Browning JA,
    2. KD,
    3. Durbin CG Jr.
    . The effect of guidelines on the appropriate use of arterial blood gas analysis in the intensive care unit. Respir Care 1989;34(4):269–276.
    OpenUrl
  3. 3.↵
    1. D'Orazio PD,
    2. Ehrmeyer SS,
    3. Jacobs E,
    4. Toffaletti JG,
    5. Wandrup JH
    ; Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (formerly NCCLS). Blood gas and pH analysis and related measurements; approved guideline, 2nd edition. Wayne, PA: CLSI; 2009. CLSI no. C46-A2.
  4. 4.↵
    1. Criner GJ,
    2. BR,
    3. D'Alonzo G
    . Critical care study guide: text and review. New York: Springer; 2010.
  5. 5.↵
    1. Lynch F
    . Arterial blood gas analysis: implications for nursing. Paediatr Nurs 2009;21(1):41–44.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  6. 6.↵
    PH. B. Arterial blood gas and pH analysis. Clinical approach and interpretation. Anesthesiol Clin N Am 2001;19(4):885–906.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  7. 7.↵
    1. Shapiro BA,
    2. Kozelowski-Templin R
    . Clinical application of blood gases. St Louis: Mosby-Year Book; 1994.
  8. 8.↵
    1. Ak A,
    2. Ogun CO,
    3. Bayir A,
    4. Kayis SA,
    5. Koylu R
    . Prediction of arterial blood gas values from venous blood gas values in patients with acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Tohoku J Exp Med 2006;210(4):285–290.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  9. 9.↵
    1. Dar K,
    2. Williams T,
    3. Aitken R,
    4. Woods KL,
    5. Fletcher S
    . Arterial versus capillary sampling for analysing blood gas pressures. BMJ 1995;310(6971):24–25.
    OpenUrlFREE Full Text
  10. 10.↵
    1. Herrington WG,
    2. Nye HJ,
    3. Hammersley MS,
    4. Watkinson PJ
    . Are arterial and venous samples clinically equivalent for the estimation of pH, serum bicarbonate and potassium concentration in critically ill patients? Diabetes Med 2012;29(1):32–35.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  11. 11.↵
    1. Pitkin AD,
    2. Roberts CM,
    3. Wedzicha JA
    . Arterialised earlobe blood gas analysis: an underused technique. Thorax 1994;49(4):364–366.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  12. 12.↵
    1. Walkey AJ,
    2. Farber HW,
    3. O'Donnell C,
    4. Cabral H,
    5. Eagan JS,
    6. Philippides GJ
    . The accuracy of the central venous blood gas for acid-base monitoring. J Intensive Care Med 2010;25(2):104–110.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  13. 13.
    1. Blasco V,
    2. Leone M,
    3. Textoris J,
    4. Visintini P,
    5. Albanèse J,
    6. Martin C
    . [Venous oximetry: physiology and therapeutic implications]. Ann Fr Anesth Réanim 2008;27(1):74–82. Article in French.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  14. 14.↵
    1. Christensen M
    . Mixed venous oxygen saturation monitoring revisited: thoughts for critical care nursing practice. Aust Crit Care 2012;25(2):78–90.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  15. 15.↵
    1. Blonshine SF,
    2. Mottram C,
    3. Ruppel G,
    4. Wanger J
    ; American Association for Respiratory Care. Clinical Practice Guideline. Blood gas analysis and hemoximetry. Respir Care 2001;46(5):498–505.
    OpenUrl
  16. 16.↵
    US Department of Health and Human Services. Clinical laboratory improvement amendments of 1988. 100-578.42 USC § 201 (1988).
  17. 17.↵
    Society of Critical Care Medicine Task Force on Guidelines. Recommendations for services and personnel for delivery of care in a critical care setting. Crit Care Med 1988;16(8):809–811.
    OpenUrlPubMedWeb of Science
  18. 18.↵
    1. Di Serio F,
    2. Petronelli MA,
    3. Sammartino E
    . Laboratory testing during critical care transport: point-of-care testing in air ambulances. Clin Chem Lab Med 2010;48(7):955–961.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  19. 19.↵
    1. Hinkelbein JFF,
    2. Denz C,
    3. Krieter H
    .. Accuracy and precision of three different methods to determine PCO2 (PaCO2 vs PETCO2 vs PtcCO2) during interhospital ground transport of critically ill and ventilated adults. J Trauma 2008;65(1):10–18.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  20. 20.↵
    1. Bach PB,
    2. Brown C,
    3. Gelfand SE,
    4. McCrory DC
    . Management of acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a summary and appraisal of published evidence. Ann Intern Med 2001;134(7):600–620.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  21. 21.↵
    1. McKinley BA,
    2. Moore FA,
    3. Sailors RM,
    4. Cocanour CS,
    5. Marquez A,
    6. Wright RK,
    7. et al
    . Computerized decision support for mechanical ventilation of trauma induced ARDS: results of a randomized clinical trial. J Trauma 2001;50(3):415–424; discussion 425.
    OpenUrlPubMedWeb of Science
  22. 22.↵
    1. Chuang ML,
    2. LI,
    3. Vintch JR,
    4. Ho BS,
    5. Chao SW,
    6. Ker JJ
    . Significant exercise-induced hypoxaemia with equivocal desaturation in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Intern Med J 2006;36(5):294–301.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  23. 23.↵
    1. Marx G,
    2. Reinhart K
    . Venous oximetry. Curr Opin Crit Care 2006;12(3):263–268.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  24. 24.↵
    1. Steedman DJ,
    2. Robertson CE
    . Acid base changes in arterial and central venous blood during cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Arch Emerg Med 1992;9(2):169–176.
    OpenUrlPubMedWeb of Science
  25. 25.
    1. Weil MH,
    2. Tang W,
    3. Noc M
    . Acid-base balance during cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Crit Care Med 1993;21(9 Suppl):S323–S324.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  26. 26.
    1. Idris AH,
    2. Staples ED,
    3. O'Brien DJ,
    4. Melker RJ,
    5. Rush WJ,
    6. Del Duca KD,
    7. et al
    . Effect of ventilation on acid-base balance and oxygenation in low blood-flow states. Crit Care Med 1994;22(11):1827–1834.
    OpenUrlPubMedWeb of Science
  27. 27.
    1. Utoh J,
    2. Moriyama S,
    3. Goto H,
    4. Hirata T,
    5. Kunitomo R,
    6. Hara M,
    7. et al
    . [Arterial-venous carbon dioxide tension difference after hypothermic cardiopulmonary bypass]. Nihon Kyobu Geka Gakkai Zasshi 1997;45(5):679–681. Article in Japanese.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  28. 28.↵
    1. Futier E,
    2. Robin E,
    3. Jabaudon M,
    4. Guerin R,
    5. Petit A,
    6. Bazin JE,
    7. et al
    . Central venous O2 saturation and venous-to-arterial CO2 difference as complementary tools for goal-directed therapy during high-risk surgery. Crit Care 2010;14(5):R193.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  29. 29.↵
    1. MacRae DJ,
    2. Palavradji D
    . Comparison between arterial, capillary, and venous acid-base measurements in the newborn infant. J Obstet Gynaecol Br Commonw 1966;73(5):761–765.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  30. 30.↵
    1. Gokel Y,
    2. Paydas S,
    3. Koseoglu Z,
    4. Alparslan N,
    5. Seydaoglu G
    . Comparison of blood gas and acid-base measurements in arterial and venous blood samples in patients with uremic acidosis and diabetic ketoacidosis in the emergency room. Am J Nephrol 2000;20(4):319–323.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  31. 31.↵
    1. Ma OJ,
    2. Rush MD,
    3. Godfrey MM,
    4. Gaddis G
    . Arterial blood gas results rarely influence emergency physician management of patients with suspected diabetic ketoacidosis. Acad Emerg Med 2003;10(8):836–841.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  32. 32.↵
    ECRI Institute. Assessing respiratory status with blood gas/pH analyzers and in vitro multiwavelength oximeters. Health Devices 1989;18(7-8):239–284.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  33. 33.
    1. Ehrmeyer SS,
    2. Laessig RH
    . Alternative statistical approach to evaluating interlaboratory performance. Clin Chem 1985;31(1):106–108.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  34. 34.
    1. Elser RC
    . Quality control of blood gas analysis: a review. Respir Care 1986;31(9):807–816.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  35. 35.
    1. Hansen JE,
    2. Jensen RL,
    3. Casaburi R,
    4. Crapo RO
    . Comparison of blood gas analyzer biases in measuring tonometered blood and a fluorocarbon-containing, proficiency-testing material. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989;140(2):403–409.
    OpenUrlPubMedWeb of Science
  36. 36.↵
    1. Hansen JE,
    2. CR,
    3. Crapo RO,
    4. Jensen RL
    . Assessing precision and accuracy in blood gas proficiency testing. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990;141(5 Pt 1):1190–1193
    OpenUrlPubMedWeb of Science
  37. 37.↵
    1. Moran RF
    . Assessment of quality control of blood gas/pH analyzer performance. Respir Care 1981;26(6):538–546.
    OpenUrl
  38. 38.↵
    1. Toffaletti JG,
    2. McDonnell EH,
    3. Ramanathan LV,
    4. Tolnai J,
    5. Templin R,
    6. Pompa L
    . Validation of a quality assessment system for blood gas and electrolyte testing. Clin Chim Acta 2007;382(1-2):65–70.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  39. 39.↵
    1. Higgins C
    . The use of heparin in preparing samples for blood-gas analysis. MLO Med Lab Obs 2007;39(10):16–18, 20; quiz 22-23.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  40. 40.↵
    1. Arkin CF,
    2. Ernst DJ,
    3. Marlar A,
    4. Parish GT,
    5. Szamosi DI,
    6. Wiseman JD
    ; Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (formerly NCCLS). Tubes and additives for venous blood specimen collection; approved standard, 5th edition. Wayne, PA: CLSI; 2003. CLSI no. H1-A5.
  41. 41.↵
    1. Cissik JH,
    2. SJ,
    3. Patton OL,
    4. Louden JA
    . The effects of sodium heparin on arterial blood-gas analysis. CVP Jan/Feb 1977.
  42. 42.
    1. Deane JC,
    2. Dagleish MP,
    3. Benamou AE,
    4. Wolf BT,
    5. Marlin D
    . Effects of syringe material and temperature and duration of storage on the stability of equine arterial blood gas variables. Vet Anaesth Analg 2004;31(4):250–257.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  43. 43.
    1. Fox MJ,
    2. Brody JS,
    3. Weintraub LR
    . Leukocyte larceny: a cause of spurious hypoxemia. Am J Med 1979;67(5):742–746.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  44. 44.
    1. Matchuny JK
    . Unexplained hypoxemia in a leukemia patient. Respir Care 1988;33(10):971–973.
    OpenUrl
  45. 45.
    1. Knowles TP,
    2. Mullin RA,
    3. Hunter JA,
    4. Douce FH
    . Effects of syringe material, sample storage time, and temperature on blood gases and oxygen saturation in arterialized human blood samples. Respir Care 2006;51(7):732–736.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  46. 46.
    1. Mahoney JJ,
    2. Harvey JA,
    3. Wong RJ,
    4. Van Kessel AL
    . Changes in oxygen measurements when whole blood is stored in iced plastic or glass syringes. Clin Chem 1991;37(7):1244–1248.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  47. 47.
    1. Muller-Plathe O,
    2. Heyduck S
    . Stability of blood gases, electrolytes and haemoglobin in heparinized whole blood samples: influence of the type of syringe. Eur J Clin Chem Clin Biochem 1992;30(6):349–355.
    OpenUrlPubMedWeb of Science
  48. 48.
    1. Smeenk FW,
    2. Janssen JD,
    3. Arends BJ,
    4. Harff GA,
    5. van den Bosch JA,
    6. Schonberger JP,
    7. et al
    . Effects of four different methods of sampling arterial blood and storage time on gas tensions and shunt calculation in the 100% oxygen test. Eur Respir J 1997;10(4):910–913.
    OpenUrlAbstract
  49. 49.
    1. Woolley A,
    2. Hickling K
    . Errors in measuring blood gases in the intensive care unit: effect of delay in estimation. J Crit Care 2003;18(1):31–37.
    OpenUrlPubMedWeb of Science
  50. 50.
    1. Wu EY,
    2. Barazanji KW,
    3. Johnson RL Jr.
    . Source of error on A-aDO2 calculated from blood stored in plastic and glass syringes. J Appl Physiol 1997;82(1):196–202.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  51. 51.
    1. McCrory DC,
    2. Brown C,
    3. Gelfand SE,
    4. Bach PB
    . Management of acute exacerbations of COPD: a summary and appraisal of published evidence. Chest 2001;119(4):1190–1209.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  52. 52.↵
    1. Kastrup M,
    2. Carl M,
    3. Spies C,
    4. Sander M,
    5. Markewitz A,
    6. Schirmer U
    . Clinical impact of the publication of S3 guidelines for intensive care in cardiac surgery patients in Germany: results from a postal survey. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2013;57(2):206–213.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  53. 53.↵
    The Joint Commission. National patient safety goals. Oakbrook Terrace, IL: The Joint Commission; 2013. http://www.jointcommission.org/standards_information/npsgs.aspx. Accessed July 23, 2013.
  54. 54.↵
    College of American Pathologists. CAP personnel requirements by testing complexity. http://www.cap.org/apps/docs/laboratory_accreditation/build/pdf/personnel_requirements_by_testing_complexity.pdf. Accessed July 23, 2013.
  55. 55.↵
    1. Malley W
    . Clinical blood gases. St Louis: Elsevier; 2005:79.
  56. 56.↵
    Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Guideline for infection control in health care personnel. Am J Infect Control 1998;26:269–354. Also in: Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1998;19(6):407–463.
    OpenUrl
  57. 57.↵
    Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Occupational safety and health standards. Toxic and hazardous substances: bloodborne pathogens. Washington, DC: OSHA. Standards 29 CFR, Part 1910.1030.
  58. 58.↵
    1. Hooton TM
    . Protecting ourselves and our patients from nosocomial infections. Respir Care 1989;34(2):111–115.
    OpenUrl
  59. 59.↵
    1. Seyfert UT,
    2. Biehl V,
    3. Schenk J
    . In vitro hemocompatibility testing of biomaterials according to the ISO 10993-4. Biomol Eng 2002;19(2-6):91–96.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  60. 60.↵
    1. Reynolds H,
    2. Dulhunty J,
    3. Tower M,
    4. Taraporewalla K,
    5. Rickard C
    . A snapshot of guideline compliance reveals room for improvement: A survey of peripheral arterial catheter practices in Australian operating theatres. J Adv Nurs 2013;69(7):1584–1594.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  61. 61.↵
    1. Baker RA,
    2. Newland RF,
    3. Fenton C,
    4. McDonald M,
    5. Willcox TW,
    6. Merry AF
    . Developing a benchmarking process in perfusion: a report of the Perfusion Downunder Collaboration. J Extra Corpor Technol 2012;44(1):26–33.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  62. 62.↵
    1. Pomerance J
    . Interpreting umbilical blood gases: for clinicians caring for the fetus or newborn, 2nd edition. Glendora, CA: Beverly Newborn Medical Group; 2012:24.
  63. 63.↵
    1. Shapiro B
    . Temperature correction of blood gas values. Respir Clin N Am 1995;1(1):69–76.
    OpenUrl
  64. 64.↵
    1. Restrepo RD,
    2. Hirst KR,
    3. Wittnebel L,
    4. Wettstein R
    ; American Association for Respiratory Care. Clinical Practice Guideline. Transcutaneous monitoring of carbon dioxide and oxygen: 2012. Respir Care 2012;57(11):1955–1962.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  65. 65.↵
    1. Astles JR,
    2. Lubarsky D,
    3. Loun B,
    4. Sedor FA,
    5. Toffaletti JG
    . Pneumatic transport exacerbates interference of room air contamination in blood gas samples. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1996;120(7):642–647.
    OpenUrlPubMedWeb of Science
  66. 66.
    1. Lu JY,
    2. Kao JT,
    3. Chien TI,
    4. Lee TF,
    5. Tsai KS
    . Effects of air bubbles and tube transportation on blood oxygen tension in arterial blood gas analysis. J Formos Med Assoc 2003;102(4):246–249.
    OpenUrlPubMedWeb of Science
  67. 67.↵
    1. McKane MH,
    2. Southorn PA,
    3. Santrach PJ,
    4. Burritt MF,
    5. Plevak DJ
    . Sending blood gas specimens through pressurized transport tube systems exaggerates the error in oxygen tension measurements created by the presence of air bubbles. Anesth Analg 1995;81(1):179–182.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  68. 68.↵
    1. Napoli AM,
    2. Machan JT,
    3. Forcada A,
    4. Corl K,
    5. Gardiner F
    . Tissue oxygenation does not predict central venous oxygenation in emergency department patients with severe sepsis and septic shock. Acad Emerg Med 2010;17(4):349–352.
    OpenUrlPubMedWeb of Science
  69. 69.↵
    1. van Beest PA,
    2. van Ingen J,
    3. Boerma EC,
    4. Holman ND,
    5. Groen H,
    6. Koopmans M,
    7. et al
    . No agreement of mixed venous and central venous saturation in sepsis, independent of sepsis origin. Crit Care 2010;14(6):R219.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  70. 70.↵
    1. Wenzel V,
    2. Krismer AC,
    3. Mayr VD,
    4. Voelckel WG,
    5. Strohmenger HU,
    6. Lindner KH
    . [Drug therapy in cardiopulmonary resuscitation]. Wien Klin Wochenschr 2001;113(23-24):915–926. Article in German.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  71. 71.↵
    1. Lim BL,
    2. Kelly AM
    . A meta-analysis on the utility of peripheral venous blood gas analyses in exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in the emergency department. Eur J Emerg Med 2010;17(5):246–248.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  72. 72.↵
    1. Neudecker J,
    2. Sauerland S,
    3. Neugebauer E,
    4. Bergamaschi R,
    5. Bonjer HJ,
    6. Cuschieri A,
    7. et al
    . The European Association for Endoscopic Surgery clinical practice guideline on the pneumoperitoneum for laparoscopic surgery. Surg Endosc 2002;16(7):1121–1143.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  73. 73.↵
    1. Razi E,
    2. Moosavi GA
    . Comparison of arterial and venous blood gases analysis in patients with exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Saudi Med J 2007;28(6):862–865.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  74. 74.↵
    1. Bilan N,
    2. Behbahan AG,
    3. Khosroshahi AJ
    . Validity of venous blood gas analysis for diagnosis of acid-base imbalance in children admitted to pediatric intensive care unit. World J Pediatr 2008;4(2):114–117.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  75. 75.↵
    CLSI. Quality management system: a model for laboratory services; approved guideline—4th edition. CLSI document GP26-A4. Wayne, PA: Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute; 2011.
  76. 76.↵
    National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards. NCCLS HS4-A. Application of a quality system model for respiratory services; approved guideline. http://isoforlab.com/phocadownload/csli/HS4-A.pdf. Accessed July 23, 2013.
  77. 77.↵
    1. Roberts CM,
    2. Ryland I,
    3. Lowe D,
    4. Kelly Y,
    5. Bucknall CE,
    6. Pearson MG
    . Audit of acute admissions of COPD: standards of care and management in the hospital setting. Eur Respir J 2001;17(3):343–349.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  78. 78.↵
    1. Merlani P,
    2. Garnerin P,
    3. Diby M,
    4. Ferring M,
    5. Ricou B
    . Quality improvement report: Linking guideline to regular feedback to increase appropriate requests for clinical tests: blood gas analysis in intensive care. BMJ 2001;323(7313):620–624.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  79. 79.↵
    1. Burnett RW,
    2. Covington AK,
    3. Maas AH,
    4. Muller-Plathe O,
    5. Weisberg HF,
    6. Wimberley PD,
    7. et al
    ; International Federation of Clinical Chemistry (IFCC), Scientific Division Committee on pH. Blood gases and electrolytes IFCC method (1988) for tonometry of blood: reference materials for PCO2 and PO2. J Clin Chem Clin Biochem 1989;27(6):403–408.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  80. 80.↵
    1. Berte LM,
    2. Boone DJ,
    3. Cooper G,
    4. James PL,
    5. Kallner A,
    6. Nobel MA,
    7. Tholen DW
    ; Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (formerly NCCLS). Application of a quality management system model for laboratory services; approved guideline, 3rd edition. Wayne, PA: CLSI; 2004. CLSI no. GP26–A3.
  81. 81.↵
    1. Marino PL,
    2. Sk
    . The ICU book. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007.
  82. 82.
    1. Sasse SA,
    2. Chen PA,
    3. Mahutte CK
    . Variability of arterial blood gas values over time in stable medical ICU patients. Chest 1994;106(1):187–193.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  83. 83.↵
    1. Thorson SH,
    2. MJ,
    3. Pierson DJ,
    4. Hudson LD
    . Variability of arterial blood gas values in stable patients in the ICU. Chest 1983;84(1):14–18.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  84. 84.↵
    Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (formerly NCCLS). Statistical quality control for quantitative measurement procedures: principles and definitions; approved guideline, 3rd edition. Wayne, PA: CLSI; 2008. CLSI no. C24–A3.
  85. 85.↵
    1. Gardner RM,
    2. CJ,
    3. Epler G,
    4. Hankinson JL,
    5. Permutt S,
    6. Plammer AL
    ; ATS Position Paper. Pulmonary function laboratory personnel qualifications. ATS News November 1982.
  86. 86.↵
    1. Garner JS
    . Guideline for isolation precautions in hospitals. The Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1996;17(1):53–80.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  87. 87.↵
    1. Gasink LB,
    2. Brennan PJ
    . Isolation precautions for antibiotic-resistant bacteria in healthcare settings. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2009;22(4):339–344.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  88. 88.↵
    1. Allegranzi B,
    2. Pittet D
    . Role of hand hygiene in healthcare-associated infection prevention. J Hosp Infect 2009;73(4):305–315.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  89. 89.↵
    World Health Organization. who guidelines on hand hygiene in health care. Geneva: WHO; 2009.
  90. 90.↵
    1. Jensen PA,
    2. Lambert LA,
    3. Iademarco MF,
    4. Ridzon R
    ; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Guidelines for preventing the transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in health-care facilities. MMWR Recomm Rep 2005;54(RR-17):1–141.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  91. 91.↵
    1. Griffith DE,
    2. AT,
    3. Brown-Elliott BA,
    4. Catanzaro A,
    5. Daley C,
    6. Gordin F,
    7. Holland SM,
    8. Horsburgh R,
    9. et al
    ; ATS Mycobacterial Diseases Subcommittee; American Thoracic Society; Infectious Disease Society of America. Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of nontuberculous mycobacterial diseases. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007;175(4):367–416. Erratum in: Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007;175(7):744–745.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
Back to top

In this issue

 

Print
Download PDF
Article Alerts
Email Article
Citation Tools

Jump to section

Related Articles

Cited By...

Keywords