Aerosol Generation and Mitigation During Methacholine Bronchoprovocation Testing: Infection Control Implications in the Era of COVID-19

References

1. 1.↵
   1. Coates AL,
   2. Wanger J,
   3. Cockcroft DW,
   4. Culver BH,
   5. Carlsen K-H,
   6. Diamant Z,
   7. et al

   ; Bronchoprovocation Testing Task Force: Kai-Håkon Carlsen. ERS technical standard on bronchial challenge testing: general considerations and performance of methacholine challenge tests. Eur Respir J 2017;49(5):1601526.

   OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
2. 2.↵
   1. Tran K,
   2. Cimon K,
   3. Severn M,
   4. Pessoa-Silva CL,
   5. Conly J

   . Aerosol generating procedures and risk of transmission of acute respiratory infections to healthcare workers: a systematic review. PloS One 2012;7(4):e35797.

   OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
3. 3.↵
   1. Buonanno G,
   2. Stabile L,
   3. Morawska L

   . Estimation of airborne viral emission: Quanta emission rate of SARS-CoV-2 for infection risk assessment. Environ Int 2020;141:105794.

   OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
4. 4.
   1. Lednicky JA,
   2. Lauzardo M,
   3. Fan ZH,
   4. Jutla A,
   5. Tilly TB,
   6. Gangwar M,
   7. et al

   . Viable SARS-CoV-2 in the air of a hospital room with COVID-19 patients. Int J Infect Dis 2020;100:476-482.

   OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
5. 5.
   1. Meselson M

   . Droplets and aerosols in the transmission of SARS-CoV-2. N Engl J Med 2020;382(21):2063.

   OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
6. 6.
   1. Somsen GA,
   2. van Rijn C,
   3. Kooij S,
   4. Bem RA,
   5. Bonn D

   . Small droplet aerosols in poorly ventilated spaces and SARS-CoV-2 transmission. Lancet Respir Med 2020;8(7):658-659.

   OpenUrl
7. 7.
   1. van Doremalen N,
   2. Bushmaker T,
   3. Morris DH,
   4. Holbrook MG,
   5. Gamble A,
   6. Williamson BN,
   7. et al

   . Aerosol and surface stability of SARS-CoV-2 as compared with SARS-CoV-1. N Engl J Med 2020;382(16):1564-1567.

   OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
8. 8.
   1. Tang S,
   2. Mao Y,
   3. Jones RM,
   4. Tan Q,
   5. Ji JS,
   6. Li N,
   7. et al

   . Aerosol transmission of SARS-CoV-2? Evidence, prevention and control. Environ Int 2020;144:106039.

   OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
9. 9.↵
   1. Sommerstein R,
   2. Fux CA,
   3. Vuichard-Gysin D,
   4. Abbas M,
   5. Marschall J,
   6. Balmelli C,
   7. et al

   ; Swissnoso. Risk of SARS-CoV-2 transmission by aerosols, the rational use of masks, and protection of healthcare workers from COVID-19. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control 2020;9(1):100.

   OpenUrlPubMed
10. 10.↵
    1. Chia PY,
    2. Coleman KK,
    3. Tan YK,
    4. Ong SWX,
    5. Gum M,
    6. Lau SK,
    7. et al

    ; Singapore 2019 Novel Coronavirus Outbreak Research Team. Detection of air and surface contamination by SARS-CoV-2 in hospital rooms of infected patients. Nat Commun 2020;11(1):2800.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
11. 11.
    1. Liu Y,
    2. Ning Z,
    3. Chen Y,
    4. Guo M,
    5. Liu Y,
    6. Gali NK,
    7. et al

    . Aerodynamic analysis of SARS-CoV-2 in two Wuhan hospitals. Nature 2020;582(7813):557-560.

    OpenUrlPubMed
12. 12.
    1. Ong SWX,
    2. Tan YK,
    3. Chia PY,
    4. Lee TH,
    5. Ng OT,
    6. Wong MSY,
    7. Marimuthu K

    . Air, surface environmental, and personal protective equipment contamination by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) from a symptomatic patient. JAMA 2020;323(16):1610-1612.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
13. 13.↵
    1. Santarpia JL,
    2. Rivera DN,
    3. Herrera VL,
    4. Morwitzer MJ,
    5. Creager HM,
    6. Santarpia GW,
    7. et al

    . Aerosol and surface contamination of SARS-CoV-2 observed in quarantine and isolation care. Sci Rep 2020;10(1):12732.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
14. 14.↵
    1. Fears AC,
    2. Klimstra WB,
    3. Duprex P,
    4. Hartman A,
    5. Weaver SC,
    6. Plante KS,
    7. et al

    . Persistence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 in aerosol suspensions. Emerg Infect Dis 2020;26(9):2168-2171.

    OpenUrl
15. 15.↵
    1. Cockcroft DW,
    2. Davis BE

    . The bronchoprotective effect of inhaling methacholine by using total lung capacity inspirations has a marked influence on the interpretation of the test result. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2006;117(6):1244-1248.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
16. 16.
    1. Allen ND,
    2. Davis BE,
    3. Hurst TS,
    4. Cockcroft DW

    . Difference between dosimeter and tidal breathing methacholine challenge: contributions of dose and deep inspiration bronchoprotection. Chest 2005;128(6):4018-4023.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
17. 17.
    1. Cockcroft DW,
    2. Davis BE

    . Mechanisms of airway hyperresponsiveness. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2006;118(3):551-559; quiz 560–561.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
18. 18.↵
    1. Prieto L,
    2. Lopez V,
    3. Llusar R,
    4. Rojas R,
    5. Marin J

    . Differences in the response to methacholine between the tidal breathing and dosimeter methods: influence of the dose of bronchoconstrictor agent delivered to the mouth. Chest 2008;134(4):699-703.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
19. 19.↵
    1. Dennis JH,
    2. Hendrick DJ

    . Design characteristics for drug nebulizers. J Med Eng Technol 1992;16(2):63-68.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
20. 20.↵
    1. Devadason SG,
    2. Everard ML,
    3. Linto JM,
    4. Le Souëf PN

    . Comparison of drug delivery from conventional versus “Venturi” nebulizers. Eur Respir J 1997;10(11):2479-2483.

    OpenUrlAbstract
21. 21.↵
    1. Rau JL,
    2. Ari A,
    3. Restrepo RD

    . Performance comparison of nebulizer designs: constant-output, breath-enhanced, and dosimetric. Respir Care 2004;49(2):174-179.

    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
22. 22.↵
    1. Crapo RO,
    2. Casaburi R,
    3. Coates AL,
    4. Enright PL,
    5. Hankinson JL,
    6. Irvin CG,
    7. et al

    . Guidelines for methacholine and exercise challenge testing-1999. This official statement of the American Thoracic Society was adopted by the ATS Board of Directors, July 1999. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000;161(1):309-329.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
23. 23.↵
    1. Cockcroft DW,
    2. Hurst TS,
    3. Gore BP

    . Importance of evaporative water losses during standardized nebulized inhalation provocation tests. Chest 1989;96(3):505-508.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
24. 24.↵
    1. Coates AL,
    2. Leung K,
    3. Dell SD

    . Developing alternative delivery systems for methacholine challenge tests. J Aerosol Med Pulm Drug Deliv 2014;27(1):66-70.

    OpenUrl
25. 25.↵
    1. Coates AL,
    2. MacNeish CF,
    3. Lands LC,
    4. Meisner D,
    5. Kelemen S,
    6. Vadas EB

    . A comparison of the availability of tobramycin for inhalation from vented vs unvented nebulizers. Chest 1998;113(4):951-956.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
26. 26.↵
    1. Dennis JH,
    2. Stenton SC,
    3. Beach JR,
    4. Avery AJ,
    5. Walters EH,
    6. Hendrick DJ

    . Jet and ultrasonic nebuliser output: use of a new method for direct measurement of aerosol output. Thorax 1990;45(10):728-732.

    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
27. 27.↵
    1. Subat YW,
    2. Guntupalli SK,
    3. Sajgalik P,
    4. Hainy ME,
    5. Torgerud KD,
    6. Helgeson SA,
    7. et al

    . Aerosol generation during peak flow testing: clinical implications for COVID-19. Respir Care 2021;66(8):1291-1298.

    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
28. 28.↵
    1. Kern DG,
    2. Frumkin H

    . Asthma in respiratory therapists. Ann Intern Med 1989;110(10):767-773.

    OpenUrlPubMed
29. 29.
    1. Christiani DC,
    2. Kern DG

    . Asthma risk and occupation as a respiratory therapist. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993;148(3):671-674.

    OpenUrlPubMedWeb of Science
30. 30.↵
    1. Dimich-Ward H,
    2. Wymer ML,
    3. Chan-Yeung M

    . Respiratory health survey of respiratory therapists. Chest 2004;126(4):1048-1053.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
31. 31.↵
    1. Bourouiba L

    . Turbulent gas clouds and respiratory pathogen emissions: potential implications for reducing transmission of COVID-19. JAMA 2020;323(18):1837-1838.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
32. 32.
    1. Bourouiba L,
    2. Dehandschoewercker E,
    3. Bush John WM

    . Violent expiratory events: on coughing and sneezing. J Fluid Mech 2014;745:537-563.

    OpenUrl
33. 33.↵
    1. Scharfman BE,
    2. Techet AH,
    3. Bush JWM,
    4. Bourouiba L

    . Visualization of sneeze ejecta: steps of fluid fragmentation leading to respiratory droplets. Exp Fluids 2016;57(2):24.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
34. 34.↵
    1. Laube BL,
    2. Adams GK III.,
    3. Norman PS,
    4. Rosenthal RR

    . The effect of inspiratory flow rate regulation on nebulizer output and on human airway response to methacholine aerosol. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1985;76(5):708-713.

    OpenUrlPubMed
35. 35.
    Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Guidelines for Environmental Infection Control in Health-Care Facilities. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/infectioncontrol/guidelines/environmental/appendix/air.html#tableb1. Accessed October 27, 2021.